Monday, June 18, 2012

Acid Rain Effects on Architecture


Acid rain has profound effects on architecture and statues. As you can see in the photo above, continuous exposure to acid rain causes statues the disintigrate. What causes the unfortunate weathering of these statues? The answer lies in the chemcal reaction that happens between acid rain and limestone.

Acid rain undergoes a series of chemical and physical changes when it falls to the earth. These changes can lessen the acidity of the rain; this is called neutralization. Alkaline and basic soils, particulalry soils that are rich in limestone or calcium carbonate, can help to neutralize the acididy directly. The reason why acid reacts so violently with limestone, is due to the chemical reaction.


Limestone: CaCO3 + H2SO4---> CaSO4 + H2CO3



H2CO3---> CO2 gas +H2O


The sulfuric acid reacts with limestone in a neutralization reaction. The calcium sulfate that is produced in the reaction is soluable in water. This causes the limestone to dissolve and crumble. In this reaction, the original acid converts to water. This reaction is similar to the reaction that happens when acid rain reacts with limestone in natural surroundings. When there is less calcium carbonate in a region, acid rain tends to affect this area more heavily than in an area where limestone or marble is part of the environment.

Acid precipitation affects stone in two different ways: dissolution and alteration. When sulfurous, sulfuric, and nitric acids in air react with calcite in marble and limestone, the calcite disolves. We see this on surfaces that are rough and loss of carved details. Limestone and marble buildings sometimes show blackened crusts that have peeled off to reveal crumbling stone beneath it. This black crust is called "gypsum". Gypsum is a mineral that forms from the reaction between calcite, water and sulfuric acid. Gypsum is soluable in water, and it can form anywhere on carbonate stone surfaces that have come into contact with sulfur dioxide gas. It is usually washed away with time. It remains in places that are not directly exposed to rain. Gypsum is white, but crystals form networks that trap particles of dirt and other pollutants, so the crust has a black appearance. 


a picutre of gypsum with dirt and pollution particles trapped by the network




Many buildings have also been destroyed because of this destructive element, but more important than the buildings acid rain destroys, environmentalists are becoming more concerned for human health. This rain has the acidity to wear away the surfaces of buildings, but this has become an increasing problem. Researchers have recorded showers in Japan that have the acidity of vinegar. Indicating that the already problematic nature of acid rain is getting worse. 


A building that has been exposed to acid rain. The detailing on the sides of this structure have gradually been worn away by continual exposure to acid rain.


Causes, Effects, And Solutions of Acid Rain


  "Acid Rain,"  or more precisely acid precipitation, is the word used to describe rainfall that has a pH level of less than 5.6.  This form of air pollution is currently a subject of great controversy because of it's worldwide environmental damages.  For the last ten years, this phenomenon has brought destruction to thousands of lakes and streams in the United States, Canada, and parts of Europe.  Acid rain is formed when oxides of nitrogen and sulfite combine with moisture in the atmosphere to make nitric and sulfuric acids.  These acids can be carried away far from its origin.  This report contains the causes, effects, and solutions to acid rain.

     The two primary sources of acid rain are sulfur dioxide (SO2), and oxides of nitrogen (NOx).  Sulfur dioxide is a colourless, prudent gas released as a by-product of combusted fossil fuels containing sulfur.  A variety of industrial processes, such as the production of iron and steel, utility factories, and crude oil processing produce this gas.  In iron and steel production, the smelting of metal sulfate ore, produces pure metal. This causes the release of sulfur dioxide.  Metals such as zinc, nickel, and copper are commonly obtained by this process.  Sulfur dioxide can also be emitted into the atmosphere by natural disasters or means.  This ten percent of all sulfur dioxide emission comes from volcanoes, sea spray, plankton, and rotting vegetation.  Overall, 69.4 percent of sulfur dioxide is produced by industrial combustion.  Only 3.7 percent is caused by transportation 

     The other chemical that is also chiefly responsible for the make-up of acid rain is nitrogen oxide.  Oxides of nitrogen is a term used to describe any compound of nitrogen with any amount of oxygen atoms.  Nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide are all oxides of nitrogen.  These gases are by-products of firing processes of extreme high temperatures (automobiles, utility plants), and in chemical industries (fertilizer production).  Natural processes such as bacterial action in soil, forest fires, volcanic action, and lightning make up five percent of nitrogen oxide emission.  Transportation makes up 43 percent, and 32 percent belongs to industrial combustion.  ["Acid Rain."  The New World Book Encyclopedia.  1993.]

     Nitrogen oxide is a dangerous gas by itself.  This gas attacks the membranes of the respiratory organs and increases the likelihood of respiratory illness.  It also contributes to ozone damage, and forms smog.  Nitrogen oxide can spread far from the location it was originated by acid rain.

     As mentioned before, any precipitation with a pH level less than 5.6 is considered to be acid rainfall.  The difference between regular precipitation and acid precipitation is the pH level.  pH is a symbol indicating how acidic or basic a solution is in ratios of relative concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.  A pH scale is used to determine if a specific solution is acidic or basic.  Any number below seven is considered to be acidic.  Any number above seven is considered to be basic.  The scale is color coordinated with the pH level.  Most pH scales use a range from zero to fourteen.  Seven is the neutral point (pure water).  A pH from 6.5 to 8, is considered the safe zone.  Between these numbers, organisms are in very little or no harm.

     Not only does the acidity of acid precipitation depend on emission levels, but also on the chemical mixtures in which sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides interact in the atmosphere.  Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides go through several complex steps of chemical reactions before they become the acids found in acid rain.  The steps are broken down into two phases, gas phase and aqueous phase.  There are various potential reactions that can contribute to the oxidation of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere each having varying degrees of success.  One possibility is photooxidation of sulfuric dioxide by means of ultraviolet light.  This process uses light form the of electromagnetic spectrum.  This causes the loss of by two oxygen atoms.  This reaction was found to be an insignificant contributor to the formation of sulfuric acid.  A second and more common process is when sulfur dioxide reacts with moisture found in the atmosphere.  When this happens, sulfate dioxide immediately oxidizes to form a sulfite ion. 


SO2 (g)+O2(g) -> SO3(g)

Afterwards, it becomes sulfuric acid when it joins with hydrogen atoms in the air.

SO3(g)+H2O(l) -> H2SO4(aq) 


     This reaction occurs quickly, therefore the formation of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere is assumed to lead this type of oxidation to become sulfuric acid.  Reaction example 1 (photooxidation), is slow due to the absence of a catalyst, proving why it is not a significant contributor.

     Another common reaction for sulfur dioxide to becomes sulfuric acid is by oxidation by ozone.  This reaction occurs at a preferable rate and is sometimes the main contributor to the oxidation of sulfuric acid.  This, hydroxy radical is produced by the photodecomposition of the ozone and is very highly reactive with any species (type of chemical compounds).  It does not require a catalyst and it is approximately 108-109 times more abundant in the atmosphere than molecular oxygen.  Other insignificant reactions include oxidation by product of alkene-zone reactions, oxidation by reaction of NxOy species, oxidation by reactive oxygen transients, and oxidation by peroxy radicals.  These reactions unfortunately prove to be insignificant for various reasons.  All the reactions mentioned so far, are gas phase reactions.  In  the aqueous phase, sulfur dioxide exists as three species: 


[S(IV)] -> [SO2(aq)] + [HSO32-] + [SO32-]

This dissociation occurs in a two part process:

SO2(aq) -> H+ + HSO3 -

HSO3-   (aq) -> H+  + SO32- 


     The oxidation process of aqueous sulfur dioxide by molecular oxygen relies on metal catalyst such as iron and manganese.  This reaction is unlike other oxidation process, which occurs by hydrogen peroxide.  It requires an additional formation of an intermediate (A-), for example peroxymonosulfurous acid ion.  This formation is shown below.

HSO3  H2O2 -> A-  +H2O

A-  +H  -> H2SO4 

     Sulfur dioxide oxidation is most common in clouds and especially in heavily polluted air where compounds such as ammonia and ozone are in abundance.  These catalysts help convert more sulfur dioxide into sulfuric acid.   But not all of the sulfur dioxide is converted to sulfuric acid.  In fact, a substantial amount can float up into the atmosphere, transport to another area and return to earth unconverted.

     Like sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides rise into the atmosphere and are oxidized in clouds to form nitric or nitrous acid.  These reactions are catalyzed in heavily polluted clouds where traces of iron, manganese, ammonia, and hydrogen peroxide are present.  Nitrogen oxides rise into the atmosphere mainly from automobile exhaust.  In the atmosphere it reacts with water to form nitric or nitrous acid. 


NO2(g) + H2O(l) -> HNO3(aq)+HNO2(aq)  [gas phase]

In the aqueous phase there are three equilibria to keep in mind for the oxidation of nitrogen oxide.

1.)  2NO2(g) + H2O(l) -> 2H+ + NO3 -  + NO2 - 
2.)  NO(g) + NO2(g) + H2O(l) -> 2H+  + 2NO2 - 
3.)  3NO2(g) + H2O(l) -> 2H+  + 2NO3 -  + NO(g) 


     These reactions are limited by the partial pressures of nitrogen oxides present in the atmosphere, and the low solubility of nitrogen oxides, increase in reaction rate occurs only with the use of a metal catalyst, similar to those used in the aqueous oxidation of sulfur dioxide.

     Over the years, scientists have noticed that some forests have been growing more and more slowly without reason.  Trees do not grow as fast as they did before.  Leaves and pines needles turn brown and fall off when they are supposed to be green.

     Eventually, after several years of collecting and recording information on the chemistry and biology of the forest, researchers have concluded that this was the work of acid rain.  A rainstorm occurs in a forest.  The summer spring washes the leaves of the branches and fall to the forest floor below.  Some of the water is absorbed into the soil.  Water run-off enters nearby streams, rivers, or lakes.  That soil may have neutralized some or all of the acidity of the acid rainwater.  This ability of neutralization is call buffering capacity.  Without buffering capacity, soil pH would change rapidly.  Midwestern states like Nebraska and Indiana have soil that is well buffered.  Nonetheless, mountainous northwest areas such as the Adirondack mountains are less able to buffer acid.  High pH levels in the soil help accelerate soil weathering and remove nutrients.  It also makes some toxic elements, for example aluminum, more soluble.  High aluminum concentrations in soil can prevent the use of nutrients by plants.  Acid rain does not kill trees immediately or directly.  Instead, it is more likely to weaken the tree by destroying its leaves, thus limiting the nutrients available to it.  Or, acid rain can seep into the ground, poisoning the trees with toxic substances that are slowly being absorbed through the roots.  When acid rain falls, the acidic rainwater dissolves the nutrients and helpful minerals from the soil.  These minerals are then washed away before trees and other plants can use them to grow.  Not only does acid rain strip away the nutrients from the plants, they help release toxic substance such as aluminum into the soil.  This occurs because these metals are bound to the soil under normal conditions, but the additional dissolving action of hydrogen ions causes rocks and small bound soil particles to break down.  When acid rain is frequent, leaves tend to lose their protective waxy coating,  When leaves lose their coating, the plant itself is open to any possible disease.  By damaging the leaves, the plant can not produce enough food energy for it to remain healthy.  Once the plant is weak, it can become more vulnerable to disease, insects, and cold weather which may ultimately kill it.

     Acid rain does not only effect organisms on land, but also effect organisms in aquatic biomes.  Most lakes and streams have a pH level between six and eight.  Some lakes are naturally acidic even without the effects of acid rain.  For example, Little Echo Pond in New York has a pH level of 4.2.

     There are several routes through which acid rain can enter the lakes.  Some chemical substances exist as dry particles in the atmosphere, while others enter directly into the lake in a form of precipitation.  Acid rain that has fallen on land can be drained through sewage systems leading to lakes.  Another way acids can enter the lake is by spring acid shock.  When acid snow melts in the spring, the acids in the snow seeps into the ground.  Some run-off the ground and into lakes.

     Spring is a vulnerable time for many species since this is the time for reproduction.  The sudden change in pH level is dangerous because the acid can cause serious deformities in their young.  Generally, the young of most species are more sensitive than the elders.  But not all species can tolerate the same amount of acid.  For example, frogs may tolerate relatively high levels of acidity, while snails are more sensitive to pH changes.

     Sulfuric acid in polluted precipitation interferes with the fish's proficiency to take in oxygen, salt, and nutrients.  For freshwater fish, maintaining osmoregulation (the ability to maintain a state of balance between salt and minerals in the organism's tissue) is essential to stay alive.  Acid molecules cause mucus to form in their gills preventing the fish to absorb oxygen well.  Also, a low pH level will throw off the balance of salt in the fish's tissue.  Calcium levels of some fish cannot be maintained due to the changes in pH level.  This causes a problem in reproduction: the eggs are too brittle or weak.  Lacking calcium causes weak spines and deformities in bones.  Sometimes when acid rainfall runs off the land, it carries fertilizers with it.  Fertilizer helps stimulate the growth of algae because of the amount of nitrogen in it.  However, because of the increase in the death of fish the decomposition takes up even more oxygen.  This takes away from surviving fish.  In other terms, acid rain does not help aquatic ecosystems in anyway.

     Acid rain does not only damage the natural ecosystems, but also man-made materials and structures.  Marble, limestone, and sandstone can easily be dissolved by acid rain.  Metals, paints, textiles, and ceramic can effortlessly be corroded.  Acid rain can downgrade leather and rubber.  Man-made materials slowly deteriorate even when exposed to unpolluted rain, but acid rain helps speed up the process.  Acid rain causes carvings and monuments in stones to lose their features. 


In limestone, acidic water reacts with calcium to form calcium sulfate.

CaCO3 + H2SO4 -> CaSO4 +  H2CO3

For iron, the acidic water produces an additional proton giving iron a positive charge.

4Fe(s) + 2O2(g) + 8  (aq) -> 4Fe2+  (aq) + 4H2O(l)

When iron reacts with more oxygen it forms iron oxide (rust).

4Fe2+ + (aq) + O2(g) + 4H2O(l) -> 2Fe2O3(s) + 8H+ + (aq) 


     The repairs on building and monuments can be quite costly.  In Westminster, England, up to ten million pounds was spent necessitated on repairs damaged by acid rain.  In 1990, the United States spent thirty-five billion dollars on paint damage.  In 1985, the Cologne Cathedral cost the Germans approximately twenty million dollars in repairs.  The Roman monuments cost the Romans about two hundred million dollars. 

     Most importantly, acid rain can affect health of a human being.  It can harm us through the atmosphere or through the soil from which our food is grown and eaten from.  Acid rain causes toxic metals to break loose from their natural chemical compounds. Toxic metals themselves are dangerous, but if they are combined with other elements, they are harmless.  They release toxic metals that might be absorbed by the drinking water, crops, or animals that human consume.  These foods that are consumed could cause nerve damage to children or severe brain damage or death.  Scientists believe that one metal, aluminum, is suspected to relate to Alzheimer's disease.

     One of the serious side effects of acid rain on human is respiratory problems.  The sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emission gives risk to respiratory problems such as dry coughs, asthma, headaches, eye, nose, and throat irritation.  Polluted rainfall is especially harmful to those who suffer from asthma or those who have a hard time breathing.  But even healthy people can have their lungs damaged by acid air pollutants.  Acid rain can aggravate a person's ability to breathe and may increase disease which could lead to death.

     In 1991, the United States and Canada signed an air quality agreement.  Ever since that time, both countries have taken actions to reduce sulfur dioxide emission.  The United States agree to reduce their annual sulfur dioxide emission by about ten million tons by the year 2000.  A year before the agreement, the Clean Air Pact Amendment tried to reduce nitrogen oxide by two million tons.  This program focused on the source that emits nitrogen oxide, automobiles and coal-fired electric utility boilers.

     Reducing nitrogen oxide emission in a utility plant starts during the combustion phase.  A procedure called Overfire Air is used to redirect a fraction of the total air in the combustion chamber. This requires the combustion process, which is redirected to an upper furnace.  This causes the combustion to occur with less O2 than required, thus slowing down the transformation of atmospheric nitrogen to nitrogen oxide.  After combustion, a system of catalytic reductions are put into effect.  This system embraces the injection of ammonia gas upstream of the catalytic reaction chamber.  The gas will react with nitrogen oxide by this reaction. 
  
4NO + 4NH3 + O2 -> 4N2+6H2O

Then it will react with NO2 by the following reaction.

2NO2 + 4NH3 + O2 -> 3N2 + 6H2O

The safe nitrogen can be released into the atmosphere.

     Since most nitrogen oxide emissions are from cars, catalytic converters must be install on cars to reduce this emission.  The catalytic converter is mounted on the exhaust pipe, forcing all the exhaust to pass though it.  This converter looks like a dense honeycomb, but it is coated with either platimun, palladium, or rhodium.  This converts nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxides and unburned hydrocarbons into a cleaner state.

     To reduce sulfur dioxide emission utility plants are required to do several steps  by the Clean Air Act Amendment.  Before combustion, these utilities plants have to go through a process call coal cleaning.  This process is performed gravitationally.  Meaning, it is successful in removing pyritic sulfur due to its high specific gravity, but it is unsuccessful in removing chemically bound organic sulfur.  This cleaning process is only limited by the percent of pyritic sulfur in the coal.  Coal with high amount of pyritic sulfur is coal in higher demands.  Another way to reduce sulfur dioxide before combustion is by burning  coal with low sulfur content.  Low sulfur content coals are called subituminous coal.  This process in reducing sulfur dioxide is very expensive due to the high demand of subituminous coal.

     During combustion, a process called Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC), is used to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. This process contains limestone or a sandstone bed that are crushed and diluted into the fuel. It is important that a balance is established between the heat liberated within the bed from fuel combustion, and the heat removed by the flue gas as it leaves.  Flue gas is the mixture of gases resulting from combustion and other reactions in a chamber.  This enables the limestones to react with sulfur dioxide and reduce emission by 90 percent.  After combustion, a process known as wet flue gas desulfurization is taken into action.  This process requires a web scrubber at the downward end of the boiler.  This process is very similar to FBC.  This scrubber can be made of either limestone or sodium hydroxide.  Limestone is more commonly used.  As sulfur dioxide enters this area it reacts with the limestone in the following example: 


CaCO3 + SO2 + H2O + O2 -> CaSO3 + CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O 


After being scrubbed, which is the term used for the phase after coal has past the wet scrubber, the flue gas is re-emmited and the waste solids are disposed.

     Acid rain is an issue that can not be over looked.  This phenomenon destroys anything it touches or interacts with it.  When acid rain damages the forest or the environment it affects humans in the long run.  Once forests are totally destroyed and lakes are totally polluted animals begin to decrease because of lack of food and shelter.  If all the animals, which are our food source, die out, humans too would die out.  Acid rain can also destroy our homes and monuments that humans hold dearly.

     What humans can do, as citizens, to reduce sulfur and nitrogen dioxide emission is to reduce the use of fossil fuels.  Car pools, public transportation, or walking can reduce tons of nitrogen oxide emissions.  Using less energy benefits the environment because the energy used comes from fossil fuels which can lead to acid rain.  For example, turning off lights not being used, and reduce air conditioning and heat usage.  Replacing old appliances and electronics with newer energy efficient products is also an excellent idea.  Sulfur dioxide emission can be reduced by adding scrubbers to utility plants.  An alternative power source can also be used in power plants to reduce emissions.  These alternatives are: geothermal energy, solar power energy, wind energy, and water energy.

     In conclusion, the two primary sources of acid rain is sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide.  Automobiles are the main source of nitrogen oxide emissions, and utility factories are the main source for sulfur dioxide emissions.  These gases evaporate into the atmosphere and then oxidized in clouds to form nitric or nitrous acid  and sulfuric acid.  When these acids fall back to the earth they do not cause damage to just the environment but also to human health.  Acid rain kills plant life and destroys life in lakes and ponds.  The pollutants in acid rain causes problem in human respiratory systems.  The pollutants attack humans indirectly through the foods they consumed.  They effected human health directly when humans inhale the pollutants.  Governments have passed laws to reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, but it is no use unless people start to work together in stopping the release of these pollutants.  If the acid rain destroys our environment, eventually it will destroy us as well. 

Acid rain poses a previously unrecognized threat to Great Lakes sugar maples


The number of sugar maples in Upper Great Lakes forests is likely to decline in coming decades, according to University of Michigan ecologists and their colleagues, due to a previously unrecognized threat from a familiar enemy: acid rain. Over the past four decades, sugar maple abundance has declined in some regions of the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada, due largely to acidification of calcium-poor granitic soils in response to acid rain.
Sugar maple forests in the Upper Great Lakes region, in contrast, grow in calcium-rich soils. Those soils provide a buffer against soil acidification. So sugar maple forests here have largely been spared the type of damage seen in mature sugar maples of the Northeast.
But now, a U-M-led team of ecologists has uncovered a different and previously unstudied mechanism by which acid rain harms sugar maple seedlings in Upper Great Lakes forests.
The scientists have concluded that excess nitrogen from acid rain slows the microbial decay of dead maple leaves on the forest floor, resulting in a build-up of leaf litter that creates a physical barrier for seedling roots seeking soil nutrients, as well as young leaves trying to poke up through the litter to reach sunlight.
"The thickening of the forest floor has become a physical barrier for seedlings to reach mineral soil or to emerge from the extra litter," said ecologist Donald Zak, a professor at the U-M School of Natural Resources and Environment and co-author of an article published online Dec. 8 in theJournal of Applied Ecology. Zak is also a professor of ecology and evolutionary biology.
"What we've uncovered is a totally different and indirect mechanism by which atmospheric nitrogen deposition can negatively impact sugar maples," Zak said.
The new findings are the latest results from a 17-year experiment at four sugar maple stands in Michigan's lower and upper peninsulas.
By the end of this century, nitrogen deposition from acid rain is expected to more than double worldwide, due to increased burning of fossil fuels. For the last 17 years at the four Michigan sugar maple test sites, Zak and his colleagues have added sodium nitrate pellets (six times throughout the growing season, every year) to three 30-meter by 30-meter test plots at each of the four Michigan maple stands. Adding the pellets was done to simulate the amount of nitrogen deposition expected by the end of the century.
Seedling-establishment data from the nitrogen-spiked test plots were compared to the findings from a trio of nearby control plots that received no additional nitrogen. Most of the fieldwork and analysis was done by 2010 SNRE graduate Sierra Patterson, who conducted the study for her master's thesis.
Patterson and her colleagues found that adding extra nitrogen increased the amount of leaf litter on the forest floor by up to 50 percent, causing a significant reduction in the successful establishment of sugar maple seedlings.
When the number of seedlings on nitrogen-supplemented treatment was compared to the number of seedlings on the no-nitrogen-added treatment, the mean abundance of second-year seedlings was 13.1 stems per square meter under ambient nitrogen deposition and 1.6 stems per square meter under simulated nitrogen deposition.
The mean abundance of seedlings between three and five years of age also significantly declined under simulated nitrogen deposition: 10.6 stems per square meter grew under ambient nitrogen deposition, compared to 0.6 stems per square meter under simulated nitrogen deposition.
"Increasing nitrogen deposition has the potential to lead to major changes in sugar maple-dominated northern hardwood forests in the Great Lakes region," said Patterson, who now works as a botanist for the Huron-Manistee National Forests in Michigan.
"In terms of regeneration, it looks like it'll be difficult for new seeds to replace the forest overstory in the future," she said "So the populations of sugar maples in this region could potentially decline."
Funding for the study has been provided by grants from the National Science Foundation and the U.S. Department of Energy's Division of Environmental Biology.
"The surprising results reported in this study are an example of the value of long-term research," said Saran Twombly, program director in the National Science Foundation's Division of Environmental Biology, which funded the work.
"Uncovering the unexpected link between nitrogen deposition and sugar maple seedling success depended on the ability to simulate increased nitrogen deposition year after year," Twombly said. "The manipulations used to reveal the details of this link could not have worked in other than a long-term study."

Sulphuric Acid & Acid Rain...



Acid rain is an environmental problem that's causing us many problems. Among one of the serious side effects of acid rain is the corrosion of buildings and statues.
Acid rain is rain which has turned acidic because of the presence of Sulphur dioxide (SO2) in the atmosphere. Sulphur dioxide are emitted from volcanoes, sea spra, rotting vegetation,burning of petrol,factories, and plankton. But the large amount of coal and oil burning are the main cause of the pollution. Acidity is measured on a pH scale. A substance with a pH value of less than 7 is acidic. 
Formula:
                        SO2(Sulphur dioxide) + O2(Oxygen) + H2O (Water) =  H2SO(Sulphuric acid)

Sulphur dioxide reacts with water vapour and sunlight to form sulphuric acid. Likewise NO2 form nitric acid in the air. These reactions takes hours, or even days, during which polluted air may move hundreds of kilometres. Thus acid rain can fall far from the source of pollution.
When mist or fog droplets condense they will remove pollutants from the air and can become more strongly acid than acid rain. Even snow can be acidic. 
The figure above shows the sources of acid rain and its effects to the environments and buildings.
About one-fourth of the acidity of rain is accounted for by nitric acid (HNO3). In addition to the natural processes that form small amounts of nitric acid in rainwater, high-temperature air combustion, such as occurs in car engines and power plants, produces large amounts of NO gas. This gas then forms nitric acid via Equations 4 and 5. Thus, a process that occurs naturally at levels tolerable by the environment can harm the environment when human activity causes the process (e.g., formation of nitric acid) to occur to a much greater extent.
What about the other 75% of acidity in rain? Most is accounted for by the presence of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) in rainwater. Although sulphuric acid may be produced naturally in small quantities from biological decay and volcanic activity, it is produced almost entirely by human activity, especially the combustion of sulphur-containing fossil fuels in power plants. When these fossil fuels are burned, the sulphur contained in them reacts with oxygen from the air to form sulphur dioxide (SO2). Combustion of fossil fuels accounts for approximately 80% of the total atmospheric SO2 in the United States. ! Sulphur dioxide, like the oxides of carbon and nitrogen, reacts with water to form sulphuric acid.

Effects of Acid Rain...

Environmental effects of acid rain.
Acid rain triggers a number of inorganic and biochemical reactions with deleterious environmental effects, making this a growing environmental problem worldwide.
  • Many lakes have become so acidic that fish cannot live in them anymore.
  • Degradation of many soil minerals produces metal ions that are then washed away in the runoff, causing several effects:
    • The release of toxic ions, such as Al3+, into the water supply.
    • The loss of important minerals, such as Ca2+, from the soil, killing trees and damaging crops.
  • Atmospheric pollutants are easily moved by wind currents, so acid-rain effects are felt far from where pollutants are generated.
Erosion of stone buildings and monuments.
Marble and limestone have long been preferred materials for constructing durable buildings and monuments.Marble and limestone both consist of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and differ only in their crystalline structure. Limestone consists of smaller crystals and is more porous than marble; it is used more extensively in buildings. Marble, with its larger crystals and smaller pores, can attain a high polish and is thus preferred for monuments and statues. Although these are recognized as highly durable materials, buildings and outdoor monuments made of marble and limestone are now being gradually eroded away by acid rain.
A chemical reaction (Equation 9) between calcium carbonate and sulfuric acid (the primary acid component of acid rain) results in the dissolution of CaCO3 to give aqueous ions, which in turn are washed away in the water flow.
 
This process occurs at the surface of the buildings or monuments; thus acid rain can easily destroy the details on relief work (e.g., the faces on a statue), but generally does not affect the structural integrity of the building. The degree of damage is determined not only by the acidity of the rainwater, but also by the amount of water flow that a region of the surface receives. Regions exposed to direct downpour of acid rain are highly susceptible to erosion, but regions that are more sheltered from water flow (such as under eaves and overhangs of limestone buildings) are much better preserved.

Chemical formula for acid rain



Raining vinegar

In some places in world the rain water has become so polluted with chemicals that it is like vinegar. This type of rain is called acid rain.

Pure water is neutral and has a pH of 7.

Natural rain water is slightly acidic mainly because of dissolved CO2 which produces carbonic acid or H2CO3

H2O(l) + CO2(g) <==> H2CO3(aq)

The pH of unpolluted rainwater ranges from pH 5 to 6.

Acid rain is rain water with a pH of less than 5. 

In some parts of the Northern Hemisphere the pH of the rain water has been as low as 2!

Acid rain is caused by caused by industrial pollutants.

The main industrial gases responsible are SO2 and NOx (a mixture of NO and NO2).

Major sources of industrial sulfur dioxide.

SO2(g) comes from mining smelters and the burning of coal.

i) The roasting of minerals releases SO2(g) from
Metal sulfide + oxygen ==> Metal oxide + SO2(g)

ii) Electrical power stations that burn coal produce sulfur dioxide from the sulfur impurities in the coal.

S(s) + O2(g) ==> SO2(g)

The SO2(g) combines with water to produce sulfurous acid.

H2O(l) + SO2(g) ==> H2SO3(g)

Note: Sulfur dioxide is not readily oxidized to sulfur trioxide in dry clean air. Water droplets and dust particles however, catalyse the reaction between O2 and SO2 in the air producing sulfur trioixde, SO3.This dissolves in water and produces sulfuric acid which is a much stronger acid. This can cause considerable damage to buildings, vegetation and fish populations by destroying fish eggs.

SO2(g) + ½O2(g)  ==> SO3(g)
H2O(l) + SO3(g) ==> H2SO4(aq)

Source of nitrogen oxides

Sources of NOx are more widespread. Nitrogen is a diatomic molecule and is fairly inert because its triple bond. However, at temperatures over 1300°C, nitrogen combines with oxygen to form nitrogen monoxide.  

 N2(g) + O2(g)   2NO(g)


These high temperatures can be achieved by
i) the internal combustion engine (human activity)
ii) lightning in the atmosphere (natural source)


The nitrogen monoxide slowly combines with oxygen to form soluble nitrogen dioxide gas. 


 2NO(g) + O2(g) => 2NO2(g)


Nitrogen dioxide readily dissolves in water producing a mixture of nitric and nitrous acids.

 2NO2(g) + H2O(l) ==> HNO3(aq) + HNO2(g)


Acidic rain is mainly caused by atmospheric pollutants of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.


The chemical formula of acidic rain is dependent upon the type of acids present. Acidic rain is a complex mixture of nitrous, nitric, sulfurous and sulfuric acids which all combine to lower the pH.