Air Pollution & Air Quality: Acid rain

Acid rain is a popular term for the atmospheric deposition of acidified rain, snow, sleet, hail, acidifying gases and particles, as well as acidified fog and cloud water. The increased acidity of these depositions, primarily from the strong acids, sulfuric and nitric, is generated as a by-product of the combustion of fossil fuels containing sulfur or nitrogen, especially  electrical utilities (power plants.) The heating of homes, electricity production, and driving vehicles all rely primarily on fossil fuel energy. When fossil fuels are combusted, acid-forming nitrogen and sulfur oxides are released to the atmosphere. These compounds are transformed chemically in the atmosphere, often traveling thousands of kilometers from their original source, and then fall out on land and water surfaces as acid rain. As a result, pollutants from power plants in New Jersey, Ohio or Michigan can impact forests, rivers or lakes in less developed parts of New Hampshire or Maine. 

Acid rain was discovered in 1963 in North America at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, in the White Mountains of New Hampshire at the initiation of the Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study. The first sample of rain collected there had a pH of 3.7, some 80 times more acidic than unpolluted rain. Innovations for reducing fossil fuel emissions, such as scrubbers on the tall smoke stacks on power plants and factories, catalytic converters on automobiles, and use of low-sulfur coal, have been employed to reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NO_x). As a result of increasing global economies, fossil fuel combustion is increasing around the world, with concomitant spread of acid rain, especially in areas such as China.

Precipitation chemistry

Several processes can result in the formation of acid deposition. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) released into the atmosphere from a variety of sources call fall to the Earth’s surface simply as dry deposition. This dry deposition can then be converted into acids when these deposited chemicals interact with water. Most wet acid deposition occurs when nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) are converted to nitric acid (HNO3) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) through oxidation and dissolution in the atmosphere. Wet deposition can also form when ammonia gas (NH3) from natural and agricultural sources is converted into ammonium (NH4).

The source of the acids in the atmosphere is largely the result of the combustion of fossil fuels that produce waste by-products including gases such as oxides of sulfur and nitrogen. Oxidized sulfur and nitrogen gases are acid precursors in the atmosphere. For example, SO₂reacts with water in the atmosphere to yield sulfuric acid:  

SO₂ + H₂O + ½O₂ = H₂SO₄

An analogous reaction of water with nitrogen oxides, symbolized as NO_x, yields nitric acid (HNO₃).

Ammonia (NH₃) is a by-product of some natural processes, as well as agricultural sources (e.g., application of nitrogen-containing fertilizers; emissions from intensive animal feedlots, such as decomposition of organic matter). In its dissolved form, ammonium (NH₄⁺) contributes acidity to surface waters through the process of nitrification.

In addition to wet deposition (rain, snow, and fog), acidic deposition includes the deposition of dry, particulate, and gaseous acid precursors that become acidic in contact with water. This dry deposition is difficult to quantify and expensive to measure. Inferential methods indicate that dry deposition represents 20% to 80% of the total deposition of acids to the landscape, depending on factors such as location, season, and total rainfall.

Natural sources can also contribute additional acidity to precipitation. Natural emissions can come from wetlands and geologic sources. Major natural sources of NO_x include lightning and soil microbes. Organic acidity may arise from freshwater wetlands and coastal marshes.

It is those natural sources that lead to the inference that pre-industrial precipitation in forested regions had a pH around 5.0. If true, then modern precipitation in the North and East is two to three times more acidic than pre-industrial.

The acidity of precipitation is still subject to misunderstanding. Even in pristine environments, precipitation pH is rarely controlled by the carbon dioxide (CO₂) reaction that has an equilibrium pH of 5.6:

H₂O + CO₂ = H₂CO₃

Because of the many sources of acidity in precipitation, pH 5.6 is not the benchmark ‘normal’ pH against which the acidity of modern precipitation should be compared. Precipitation is a variable and complex mixture of particulates and solutes derived from local sources and long-range transport. For example, in arid or partly forested regions, dust from soil and bedrock typically neutralizes both the natural and human sources of acidity in precipitation, yielding a solution that may be quite basic (pH greater than 7). In the northeastern U.S. and eastern Canada, annual precipitation pH ranges from 4.3 in Pennsylvania, New York, and Ohio, to 4.8 in Maine and maritime Canada.

Effects on surface water quality 

Lake acidification begins with the deposition of the byproducts acid precipitation (SO₄ and H ions) in terrestrial areas located adjacent to the water body. Hydrologic processes then move these chemicals through soil and bedrock where they can react with limestone and aluminum-containing silicate minerals. After these chemical reactions, the leachate continues to travel until it reaches the lake. The acidity of the leachate entering lake is controlled by the chemical composition of the effected lake's surrounding soil and bedrock. If the soil and bedrock is rich in limestone the acidity of the infiltrate can be reduced by the buffering action of calcium and magnesium compounds. Toxic aluminum (and some other toxic heavy metals) can leach into the lake if the soil and bedrock is rich in aluminum-rich silicate minerals.

Surface water chemistry is a direct indicator of the potential deleterious effects of acidification on biotic integrity. Because surface water chemistry integrates the sum of processes upstream in a watershed, it is also an indicator of the indirect effects of watershed-scale impacts, such as nitrogen saturation,forest decline, or soil acidification.

Acid deposition degrades water quality by lowering pH levels (i.e., increasing acidity); decreasing acid-neutralizing capacity (ANC); and increasing aluminum concentrations. A recent survey in the Northeast concluded that 41 percent of lakes in the Adirondack region are still acidic or subject to short-term pulses in acidity associated with snowmelt or rain storms. In the Catskill region and New England as a whole, 15 percent of lakes exhibit these characteristics. Eighty-three percent of the impacted lakes are acidic due to acid deposition. The remaining 17 percent are probably acidic under natural conditions, but have been made more acidic by acid deposition. This survey presents a conservative estimate of lakes impaired by acid deposition. Data were collected from lakes that are one hectare or larger and included only samples that were collected during the summer, when conditions are relatively less acidic.

Stream data from the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire (HBEF) reveal a number of long-term trends that are consistent with trends in lakes and streams across the Northeast. Specifically, the concentration of sulfate in streams at the HBEF declined 20 percent between 1963 and 1994. The pH of streams subsequently increased from 4.8 to 5.0. Although this represents an important improvement in water quality, streams at the HBEF remain acidic compared to background conditions, estimated to be above 6.0. Moreover, a lake or stream’s susceptibility to acid inputs – has not improved significantly at the HBEF over the past thirty years.

Chronic acidification

Surface waters become acidic when the supply of acids from atmospheric deposition and watershed processes exceeds the capacity of watershed soils and drainage waters to neutralize them. Surface waters are defined as ‘acidic’ if their acid neutralizing capacity (ANC, analogous to alkalinity) is less than 0, corresponding to pH values less than about 5.2.

The chemical conditions that define acidity are that acid anion concentrations (sulfate, nitrate, organic acids) are present in excess of concentrations of base cations (typically calcium or magnesium), the products of mineral weathering reactions that neutralize acidity in soil or rock.

The National Surface Water Survey (NSWS) in the United States documented the status and extent of chronic acidification during probability surveys conducted from 1984 through 1988 in acid-sensitive regions throughout the U.S. The NSWS estimated the chemical conditions of 28,300 lakes and 56,000 stream reaches in all of the major acid-sensitive regions of the U.S.

The NSWS concluded that 4.2% of lakes larger than 4 hectares and 2.7% of stream segments in the acid-sensitive regions were acidic. The regions represented in that report are estimated to contain 95% of the lakes and 84% of the streams that have been anthropogenically acidified in the U.S. The Adirondacks had the largest proportion of acidic surface waters (14%) in the NSWS. The proportions of lakes estimated by NSWS to be acidic were smaller in New England and the Upper Midwest (5% and 3%, respectively), but the large numbers of lakes in these regions translate to several hundred acidic waters in each region.

The Valley and Ridge province and Northern Appalachian Plateau had 5% and 6% acidic sites, respectively. The only acid-sensitive region not assessed in the current report is Florida, where the high proportion of naturally acidic lakes, and a lack of long-term monitoring data, make assessment problematic.

A recent survey in the Northeastern U.S. concluded that 41 percent of lakes in the Adirondack Mt. region are still acidic or subject to short-term pulses in acidity associated with snowmelt or rain storms. In the Catskill region of New York and in New England, 15 percent of lakes exhibit these characteristics. Eighty-three percent of the impacted lakes are acidic due to acid deposition. The remaining 17 percent are probably acidic under natural conditions, but have been made more acidic by acid deposition. This survey presents a conservative estimate of lakes impaired by acid deposition. Data were collected from lakes that are one hectare or larger and included only samples that were collected during the summer, when conditions are relatively less acidic.

Stream data from the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire (HBEF) reveal a number of long-term trends that are consistent with trends in lakes and streams across the Northeastern U.S. Specifically, the concentration of sulfate in streams at the HBEF declined by about 45% between 1963-2008. The pH of streams subsequently increased from 4.85 to 5.15. Although this represents an important improvement in water quality, streams at the HBEF remain acidic compared to background conditions, estimated to be above 6.0. Moreover, ANC – an important measure of a lake or stream’s susceptibility to acid inputs – has only improved slightly at the HBEF over the past forty-five years.

Biologically-relevant surface water chemistry

The main cause for concern over the effects of surface water acidification in the U.S. and elsewhere is the potential for detrimental biological affects. Typically, there is concern for biological impact if the pH is less than 6. At low pH values,aluminum may be present at concentrations that are toxic to biota, including sensitive life stages of fish and sensitive invertebrates. Aluminum is an abundant and normally harmless component of rocks and soils. However, it leaches from silicate minerals when they come in contact with low-pH waters. While much of the aluminum present in surface waters is organically-bound and relatively non-toxic, certain inorganic species are highly toxic. The best indicator of recovery in biologically-relevant chemistry would be a decrease in concentrations of inorganic monomeric aluminum, the most toxic form. Decreases in total aluminum would also suggest recovery, although the actual magnitude of the improvement in chemical conditions for biota would be unknown because we would not know how much of the decrease is due to inorganic vs. organic forms of aluminum.

Biological effects of acid rain

Effects on forest ecosystems

The 1990 National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program report to Congress concluded there was insubstantial evidence that acid deposition had caused the decline of trees other than red spruce growing at high elevations. More recent research shows that acid deposition has contributed to the decline of red spruce trees throughout the eastern U.S. and sugar maple trees in central and western Pennsylvania. Symptoms of tree decline include poor crown condition, reduced tree growth, and unusually high levels of tree mortality. Red spruce and sugar maple are the species that have been the most intensively studied.

Red Spruce

Since the 1960s, more than half of large canopy red spruce in the Adirondack Mountains of New York and the Green Mountains of Vermont and approximately one quarter of large canopy red spruce in the White Mountains of New Hampshire have died. Significant growth declines and winter injury to red spruce have been observed throughout its range. Acid deposition is the major cause of red spruce decline at high elevations in the Northeast. Red spruce decline occurs by both direct and indirect effects of acid deposition. Direct effects include the leaching of calcium from a tree’s leaves and needles (i.e., foliage), whereas indirect effects refer to changes in the underlying soil chemistry.

Recent research suggests that the decline of red spruce is linked to the leaching of calcium from cell membranes in spruce needles by acid rain, mist or fog. The loss of calcium renders the needles more susceptible to freezing damage, thereby reducing a tree’s tolerance to low temperatures and increasing the occurrence of winter injury and subsequent tree damage or death. In addition, elevated aluminum concentrations in the soil may limit the ability of red spruce to take up water and nutrients through its roots. Water and nutrient deficiencies can lower a tree’s tolerance to other environmental stresses and cause decline.

Sugar Maple

The decline of sugar maple has been studied in the eastern United States since the 1950s. Extensive mortality among sugar maples in Pennsylvania appears to have resulted from deficiencies of base cations, coupled with other stresses such as insect defoliation or drought. According to research studies, the probability of the loss of sugar maple crown vigor or the incidence of tree death increased on sites where supplies of calcium and magnesium in the soil and foliage were the lowest and stress from insect defoliation and/or drought was high. In northwestern and north central Pennsylvania, soils on the upper slopes of unglaciated sites contain low calcium and magnesium supplies as a result of more than half a million years of weathering combined with the leaching of these elements by acid deposition. Low levels of these base cations can cause a nutrient imbalance and reduce a tree’s ability to respond to stresses such as insect infestation and drought.

Effects on aquatic organisms

The biological effects of acidification have been demonstrated in laboratory and field bioassays, with whole-ecosystem acidification experiments, and through field surveys. A number of the species, especially of fish and macro-invertebrates, that commonly occur in surface waters susceptible to acidic deposition cannot survive, reproduce or compete in acidic waters. Sensitive species may be lost even at moderate levels of acidity. For example, some important zooplankton predators are not found at pH levels below 5.6; sensitive mayfly species (e.g., Baetis lapponicus) are affected at pH levels near 6.0; and sensitive fish species, such as the fathead minnow, experience recruitment failure and extinction at pH 5.6 to 5.9.

Decreases in pH and elevated concentrations of aluminum have reduced the species diversity and abundance of aquatic life in many streams and lakes in acid-sensitive areas of the Northeast. Fish have received the most attention to date, but entire food webs are often adversely affected.

Decreases in pH and increases in aluminum concentrations have diminished the species diversity and abundance of plankton, invertebrates, and fish in acid-impacted surface waters in the Northeast. In the Adirondacks, a significant positive relationship exists between the pH and acid-neutralizing capacity (ANC) of lakes and the number of fish species present in those lakes. Surveys of 1,469 Adirondack lakes conducted in 1984 and 1987 show that 24 percent of lakes (i.e., 346) in this region do not support fish. These lakes had consistently lower pH and ANC, and higher concentrations of aluminum than lakes that contained one or more species of fish. Even acid-tolerant fish species such as brook trout have been eliminated from some waters in the Northeast.

Acid episodes are particularly harmful to aquatic life because abrupt changes in water chemistry allow fish few areas of refuge. High concentrations of aluminum are directly toxic to fish and are a primary cause of fish mortality during acid episodes. High acidity and aluminum levels disrupt the salt and water balance in fish, causing red blood cells to rupture and blood viscosity to increase. Studies show that the viscous blood strains the fish’s heart, resulting in a lethal heart attack.

The absence of fish and the presence of aluminum in lakes provides important information about the condition of soils within a watershed. The release of aluminum from the soil into rivers and streams usually indicates that the available calcium in the soil is low and has been depleted. Furthermore, trees growing in such soils may experience greater nutritional stress. Reduced pH is also a contributory adverse impact when herbicides and pesticides are present in natural water bodies, thereby compounding mortality impacts to fish and amphibians.

Effect on soils

Acid deposition has altered and continues to alter soils in parts of the northeastern USA in three ways. Acid deposition depletes calcium and other base cations from the soil; facilitates the mobilization of dissolved inorganic aluminum (hereafter referred to simply as aluminum) into soil water; and increases the accumulation of sulfur and nitrogen in the soil.

Loss of calcium and other base cations

In the past 50-60 years, acid deposition has accelerated the loss of large amounts of available calcium from soils in the Northeast. This conclusion is based on a limited number of soil studies, but at present, calcium depletion has been documented at more than a dozen study sites throughout the Northeast, including sites in the Adirondacks, the White Mountains, the Green Mountains, and the state of Maine. Depletion occurs when base cations are displaced from the soil by acid deposition at a rate faster than they can be replenished by the slow breakdown of rocks or the deposition of base cations from the atmosphere. This depletion of base cations fundamentally alters soil processes, compromises the nutrition of some trees, and hinders the capacity for sensitive soils to recover.

Mobilization of aluminum

Aluminum is often released from soil to soil water, vegetation, lakes, and streams in forested regions with high acid deposition, low stores of available calcium, and high soil acidity. High concentrations of aluminum can be toxic to plants, fish, and other organisms. Concentrations of aluminum in streams at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire (HBEF) are often above levels considered toxic to fish and much greater than concentrations observed in forested watersheds receiving low levels of acid deposition.

Accumulation of sulfur and nitrogen

Acid deposition results in the accumulation of sulfur and nitrogen in forest soils. As sulfate is released from the soil, it acidifies nearby streams and lakes. The recovery of surface waters in response to emission controls has therefore been delayed and will not be complete until the sulfate left by a long legacy of acid deposition is released from the soil.

Similarly, nitrogen has accumulated in soil beyond the amount needed by the forest and appears now to be leaching into surface waters in many parts of the Northeast. This process also acidifies lakes and streams. Forests typically require more nitrogen for growth than is available in the soil. However, several recent studies suggest that in some areas, nitrogen levels are above what forests can use and retain.

Trends in acidification

Regulatory controls initiated in the 1970s and 1990s have had an important impact on the emissions of pollutants that cause acid rain. Especially important is the Acid Rain Program in Title IV of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments. The Acid Rain Program has the goals of lowering the electric power industry’s annual emissions of (1) Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) to half of 1980 levels, capping them at 8.95 million tons starting in 2010, and (2) Nitrogen oxide (NO_x) to 2 million tons lower than the forecasted level for 2000, reducing annual emissions to a level of 6.1 million tons in 2000. In fact, SO₂emissions decreased 33 percent from 1983 to 2002 and 31 percent from 1993 to 2002.

Over the past few decades:

1. “Wet sulfate deposition, which contributes to the acidification of sensitive lakes, streams, and forest soils, has decreased by more than half in the most intense sulfur deposition areas of the U.S.” (See maps below)
2. Some modest reductions in deposition of inorganic nitrogen concentrations have occurred in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions of the U.S., but other areas have not shown much improvement. (See maps below)

These trends indicate significant progress, but acid rain remains a significant long-term issue in the U.S. and elsewhere. Importantly, the emission and atmospheric deposition of base cations that help counteract acid deposition have declined significantly since the early 1960s with the enactment of pollution controls on particulate matter, and the ability of ecosystems to neutralize acid deposition has decreased in some regions. Consequently, lakes, streams, and soils in many parts of the Northeast are still acidic and exhibit signs of degradation linked to acid deposition. 

Global Dimensions

Large areas of southeastern Asia are currently being subjected to acid rain or its precursors. China is a leading producer of S02, fueled by rapid economic growth and lack of significant air pollution controls. Along with India, the large increase in the use of fossil fuels has led to increased emissions of both S02 and N0x to the atmosphere. At the same time large amounts of acid-neutralizing particles (dust) in the atmosphere from industrial and agricultural sources has limited or delayed the formation of acid deposition in these areas. It is likely that government regulations of dust emission, because of health concerns, will result in a large increase in acid deposition in these areas in the near future.

Ecosystem recovery from acid deposition

Recovery from acid deposition involves decreases in emissions resulting from regulatory controls, which in turn lead to reductions in acid deposition and allow chemical recovery. Chemical recovery is characterized by decreased concentrations of sulfate, nitrate, and aluminum in soils and surface waters. If sufficient, these reductions will eventually lead to increased pH and acid-neutralizing capacity (ANC), as well as higher concentrations of base cations. As chemical conditions improve, the potential for the second phase of ecosystem recovery, biological recovery, is greatly enhanced.

An analysis of the scientific literature suggests that the following five thresholds can serve as indicators of chemical recovery. If chemical conditions in an ecosystem are above these thresholds, (or in the case of aluminum, are below the threshold) it is unlikely that the ecosystem has been substantially impaired by acid deposition. Conversely, if chemical conditions are below these thresholds, (or in the case of aluminum, above the threshold) it is likely that the ecosystem has been, or will be, impaired by acid deposition.

As chemical conditions in soils and surface waters improve, biological recovery is enhanced. Biological recovery is likely to occur in stages, since not all organisms can recover at the same rate and may vary in their sensitivity to acid deposition. The current understanding of species’ responses to improvements in chemical conditions is incomplete, but research suggests that stream macro-invertebrates may recover relatively rapidly (i.e., within 3 years), while lake zooplankton may need a decade or more to fully re-establish. Fish populations in streams and lakes should recover in 5-10 years following the recovery of the macro-invertebrates and zooplankton which serve as food sources. It is possible that, with improved chemical conditions and the return of other members of the aquatic food web, the stocking of streams and lakes could help to accelerate the recovery of fish.

Terrestrial recovery is even more difficult to project than aquatic recovery. Given the life span of trees and the delay in the response of soil to decreases in acid deposition, it is reasonable to suggest that decades will be required for affected trees on sensitive sites to recover once chemical conditions in the soil are restored.

The time required for chemical recovery varies widely among ecosystems in the Northeast, and is primarily a function of:

1. Historic rate of sulfur and nitrogen deposition;
2. Rate and magnitude of decreases in acid deposition;
3. Extent to which base cations such as calcium have been depleted from the soil;
4. Extent to which sulfur and nitrogen have accumulated in the soil and the rate at which they are released as deposition declines;
5. Weathering rate of the soil and underlying rock and the associated supply of base cations to the ecosystem; and
6. Rate of atmospheric deposition of base cations.

Acid Rain, Ozone Depletion, Global Warming

Introduction

The standard practices of running the economy of the industrialized nations all over the world has caused catastrophic results to our environment such as Acid Rain, Ozone depletion, and Global Warming. These three main topics has raised an international debate on what to do about it and are we blowing things way out of concern when it comes to its impacts to the natural world and the future generations.

What is Acid Rain?

Acid Rain is the result of the emissions of sulfate and nitrates into the atmosphere from the burning coal to produce electricity and deposited to the earths surfaces as an acid. The debate goes on today if acid rain is the major cause of the fish to disappear in the lakes and streams in the Adirondack region.

Studies have proven that acid rain does come from the coal burning plants from the mid-west region and deposited in the mid-atlantic, eastern states, and Canada. The studies also show that the amount of acid rain formed and deposited is not enough to cause the streams and lakes in these regions to be devoid of fish. They believe it is a combination of both man made and natural causes. An ecosystem can get a good dose of acid from its own environment from surface run-off coming into contact with peat moss under the pine forest canopy, alkaline base rocks, and cracks in the bedrock. Natural means is not the total blame for aquatic systems to become acidic. If this was the case then fish would have disappeared long ago. We believe that the fish can build up a certain tolerance that mother nature has to offer. But with the onset of acid rain, it was too much for them to handle and died off.

What is Ozone Depletion?

The Ozone layer is a thin layer in the atmosphere made up of oxygen atoms (03) that absorb harmful ultraviolet radiation (UV-B) from reaching the earths surface. The ozone is being depleted by chemicals released into the atmosphere likechlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon tetraflouride, methyl chloroforms, chlorofluoromethanes (aerosol repellents and as refrigerants). The problem is when CFC's reach the ozone layer, it is broken down by the UV -B rays and it is these free chlorine atoms that do the damage to the ozone. One free chlorine atom will destroy 100,000 ozone molecules before it dies off.

There are some natural means that effect ozone like volcano eruptions, and drastic changes in weather problems (El Nina and La Nina). What would happen if a hole was breached and UV-B rays were able to pass through. This has already happen. Scientists have discovered a hole over the Antarctic and some mid-altitude regions over Chile in South America. The Mapuche Nation lives under one of these holes in the ozone and they have seen an increased number of skin cancer and blindness among their people. They see a huge impact to the plants and animals in their surrounding environment.

Scientists believe that species on earth will have to adjust their UV-B composition in order to survive. At least humans can put on sunscreen to protect them from the UV-B rays. Animals don't have this luxury. Plants will have a hard time surviving, unless there is drought conditions, then they won't be able to survive at all. Plus the addition of UV-B rays will heat the earths surface which adds to global warming which leads us to our next topic.

What is Global Warming?

Global warming is the result of the troposphere trapping heat causing a greenhouse effect. Studies have shown that the rise in CO2 has a direct relationship with temperatures rising on earth. CO2 and other greenhouse gas is produced by, burning of fossil fuels (coal,oil), transportation,

deforestation practices, agricultural practices (cattle and rice farming). The United States is the biggest contributor to green house gas. The results from global warming could prove to be catastrophic to our environment. The World will experience a decrease in biodiversity. coastal lands underwater due to the glaciers melting in the polar regions, see severe droughts and floods due to the disruption of the water cycle. Entire ecosystems could be altered as the range of distribution of plants and animal species change. Economically, the costs to society is enormous. Diseases will increase in diseases like malaria, yellow fever, and cholera. These types of diseases flourish during warm weather There is one benefit we could see from global warming. Crop yield will increase in some regions by 30 to 40%. But this will be negligible because crop yield will decrease in other regions by the same amount. S

In 1992, at the Earth Summit in Rio, 18 developed countries agreed to cap industrial emissions of Carbon Dioxide and other greenhouse gas. Some even went further to cut their emissions to 1990 levels. No country today has done this yet. The US being the biggest emitter of Greenhouse gas didn't agree to anything from the earth summit because they did not want to tie the hands of industry and fossil fuel burning plants in fear of hurting the economy of this country. They have an the attitude that they should be able to pollute as much as they want for the free world and everybody else should cut back.

What Can You and I do About It?

As consumers, we have to curve our appetite for destruction. Parents. educators, political, and spiritual leaders have to come together and work together for the good of the environment and make sure there is an environment for the future generations. The children of the world have to make the adults live up to this goal. From attending meetings. we know we can't leave it up to the governments to do something. Look what happened to the Earth Summit and look at the prosperity the US economy experienced under the Clinton Administration and still did nothing to decrease the CO2 levels in the states fearing it will hurt the economy. Now that the US is in a recession, The Bush Administration is looking at slashing every environmental regulation there is

on the books to spur the economy. The faster the rate of climate change, the harder it will be for nature and humans to adopt to those changes. If the rate of change is slow, then we can surely adapt. Our mission for the next decade should be to slow the rate of change and this needs to happen now. We must begin to consider how important our wetlands. our forests, species of fish, plants and animals. We must take the energy away from fossil burning plants and put it towards alternative energy technologies (Solar, Wind, bio-mass). In mid 70s to the mid 80s, US experienced an oil crisis and pushed energy conservation. As a result, the US was able to save 150 billion dollars per year, displaced the need for 14 million barrels of oil per day and reduced CO2 levels by 40%. We know it can be done if we all work together.

Energy Conservation - For the Home, For the Environment

How to save energy in the home!

Lighting

• Shut the lights off when you leave the room. We can't stress this enough. Replace all candescent light bulbs with compact florescent light (CFL) bulbs. Replacing a 75 watt bulb with an 18 watt CFL bulb will prevent the generation of 1 tonne of CO2 and 25. Lbs. Of 804 and last three times longer and will save you over $45.00 per year on energy costs.
• Utilize the sunlight as much as possible because it is free.
• Paint surfaces in light colors, they reflect the light to other areas ofthe room.
• Use motion detector lights for the outside lighting.

Windows & Doors

Windows and doors are considered the weakest link to your home. They account for 10 to 25% of the heat loss to your home.

• Build an awning or walkway entrance around your door to keep the cold air out and sunlight from warming your house in the summer time.
• Caulk around all windows and doors.
•  Put up insulated curtains for the winter time. Keep them open during the day, close them at night.
• Put up light colored shades or blinds.
• Put your hand on the inside of the window, if it is cold, then the heat from the room will be transferred to the outside. You might need additional protection around your windows like putting plastic around the outside.
• When building a new home, or replacing new windows, check for the highest r-value you can find for your home. It may cost you more, but save you money in the long run. A single pane window will lose up to 12 times as much heat than a single pane. This adds up to 1 gallon of oil per day that is lost per window.

Refrigerator & Freezers

One of the biggest energy consumers in the household.

• If you have an old refrigerator, it is time to replace it because the old refrigerators are not energy efficient.
• When selecting a new refrigerator, look for the most energy efficient model out their on the market. Look for an energy saver label, higher the number, more energy you save.
• If you have a second refrigerator, unplug it and get rid of it, because you don’t need it.
• Locate away from sunlight, and away from any appliance that creates heat, like ovens, dishwasher or dryer.
• Keep the top uncluttered.
• Clean the conditioner coils in the back.
• Check the temperature on a regular basis. The temperature inside should be kept around 35-40 degreesfahrenheit.

• Think of what you want before you open the door, then reach in and grab it as fast as you can.
• Cover liquids and foods. Label food containers.
• Check the gaskets around the door - place a paper in the door opening, close the door with the paper half in and half out. If you can slide the paper out with no resistance, its time to adjust the door latch of replace the seal and gasket around the door.
• If you have to purchase a freezer, select the chest top with manual defrost. It consumes less energy  up to 35%. If we go back to the old ways of preserving our foods like canning, drying, etc. we could eliminate the use of freezers.
• Install an energy saving green plug. This device reduces the voltage of electricity feeding into your appliance.

Hot Water Heater

The second largest consumer in the household.

• Add water efficiency fixtures to all faucets and showerheads, Saves on the use of hot water and will save on the life span of your hot water heater.
• Fix a leaky faucet right away. One drop per second for a month will waste enough water for 16 baths.
• Take seven minute showers instead of baths.
• If you have to mix cold water when you turn on the hot water, your temperature is set to high. Most Hot water heaters are set at 140 degrees Fahrenheit. You could set it to 115 to 120 degrees to suit most household needs.
• Never leave the plug out when running hot water.
• Insulate your tank and all hot water pipes.
• Add rigid board insulation to the bottom of your tank.
• Add anti- convection valves to the inlet and outlet pipes to the hot water heater. It will save you 8 to $28 per year.
• Turn off your hot water heater when you go on vacation.
• Add a shut off switch to your unit so it shuts off why you sleep.
• If your hot water heater or boiler is more than 10 years old, replace it.
• Try to select your own hot water unit for your own home. Most new homes, they select for you and saving energy is not in their best interest.
• Selecting the cheap conventional electric tank hot water heater will add $5,500 to your energy bill.
• A solar hot water system is the best way to go.
• Washing dishes manually is more energy efficient than any dishwashers.

Washers and Dryers

• Wash in full loads
• Wash with cold water instead of hot. Clothes will get as clean in cold water as in hot water.
• Soak clothes with tough stains in cold water first before washing.
• Locate washer closer to your hot water heater.

• It is more energy efficient to wash your clothes at the laundromat than using the conventional washing machine in the home. They use a third of the less water, can wash more clothes at one time, use less the detergent, and use 60% less the energy.
• Ring clothes out before putting them in the dryer.
• Electric clothes dryers are more efficient than gas dryers, but burn more fossil fuels to run an electric dryer to a gas dryer.
• The most energy efficient clothes dryer is the clothes line.

Cooking

• Look for the most energy efficient stove on the market. Gas stoves are more efficient than electric stoves.
• Cover pots when cooking or heating foods up.
• Size up the appropriate pan for the right job.
• Boil the right amount of water you need to cook with. You don’t want to heat up what you don’t need.
• Cook in bulk. It is cheaper to re-heat than cook from scratch.
• Use microwaves to heat up foods. Use 1/3 less electricity than ovens.
• The most energy efficient way to thaw out food is take it out the night before, instead of using the microwave or oven.. Plan your meals ahead of time.
• Convection ovens with self cleaning are more energy efficient when it comes to electric ovens.
• Cook with glass or ceramic when cooking in the oven. Make sure it is full. Less space to heat up.
• Get an oven with a light, so you don’t have to open the door to see if your food is done.
• Consider using the broiler instead of the oven, no warming process involved. Cooks in less time.
• Crock pots are very energy efficient in cooking stews and soups.
• Use pressure cookers when appropriate. Cook foods at higher temperatures in such a short time.
• Electric kettles are by far the most energy efficient way to boil water for your hot tea.
• Use toaster ovens to cook small meals.

Heating and Cooling

• Because heat rises, insulating your ceiling and attic should be your first priority. It can save you up to 30% on your heating bill. Make sure you have the proper vapor barrier underneath your insulation. If the insulation absorbs moisture, it can no longer perform its duty.
• Select the right furnace for your home. Keep it maintained on a regular basis.
• Keep air ducts clean. Dust and dirt can impede the flow of hot air to your rooms.
• Seal all leaky ducts and pipes.
• Heat pumps can reduce your heating bill by 30%, by moving hot air from one room to another.
• Add insulated foam gaskets behind switch and plug outlets located on exterior walls.

• Remove screens in the wintertime, reduces the solar increase gain to your home by 40%
• Apply window films to your windows and doors, help keep heat inside in the wintertime, and help reflects sun rays in the summertime.
• If you use an air conditioner, make sure it is shaded on the outside.
• Fans is the most energy efficient way to cool a room.
• Don’t keep fans or air conditioners on overnight.
• Apply light colored surfaces to the exterior of your home. Dark colors absorb heat from the sun.
• Build your home on a slab. Keeps the house cool in the summertime, saves on heating costs in the winter.

Landscaping

• Orientate your home to the proper surroundings.
• Plant coniferous trees on the north side to keep the north wind out. Plant deciduous trees on the south, east, and west side of the house, to keep the sunlight  out. Properly planted trees can reduce your cooling bill by 35%.

Automobile

Your car emits the same amount of CO2 of your body weight every 300 km you drive.

• Plan your trips. Make several stops, instead of going out, coming home, then going out again.
• Driving a 4 cylinder instead of a six cylinder will save you $ 500 a year.
• Driving at 55 mph instead of 65 mph will save you 10% in your fuel costs.
• Car pool every chance and every where you go.
• Tune up your vehicle twice a year.
• Make sure your exhaust system is functioning properly. This helps your vehicle run in an efficient manner and not polluting the environment.
• Keep your speed steady on the highways. Use your cruise control. Speeding up and slowing down increases fuel consumption.
• Remove car racks when not needed.
• Never leave your car running when you leave your vehicle. Your car emits more CO2 when idling and waste gas needlessly.
• You only need to warm up your vehicle for 60 seconds before driving in the wintertime.
• Use a scrapper to clean the ice off the windows instead of the heater.
• The most energy efficient transportation known to man is the bicycle, besides his two left feet.

Things You Can Do to Help The Environment – Why Recycle?

Energy matters begin in the home.

• Every tonne of newsprint recycled about 2000 daily newspapers will save the equivalent of 19 trees.
• Plant trees whenever and wherever you can.
• Every tonne of steel recycled, saves 1.5 tonnes of iron ore to be excavated out of mother earth.
• It takes 70% less energy to produce aluminum from recycled products than from raw materials.
• Recharge batteries, they may not last as long, but saves energy and materials in producing a new one.
• You can save more than 400 Kilo-watt hours of electricity in  one year by recycling all the glass, steel, paper aluminum, plastic, bottles, and cans in your household.
• Compost all your organic waste in your household. This will reduce your garbage volume by 40%
• Never burn your leaves. Always compost them.
• Protect Wetlands. They absorb carbon out of the air, and filter chemicals out of the water.
• Buy things that are re-usable, use over and over again.
• Don’t buy merchandise that are over packaged.
• Bring your bags to the grocery store.
• Buy stuff in bulk, break it down into smaller portions when you get home.
• Wash your plastic bags and tin foil after use. You can keep using your plastic bags until they don’t re-seal anymore or it gets a hole in it.
• Use rags instead of paper towels to clean up spills.
• Avoid fast food restaurants, and if you can’t avoid fast food restaurants, then avoid the drive thru. Eat at a place that has real utensils for you to eat with.
• Keep an electricity log in your home.